An Overview of the Status of Women in India By Neera Desai and Maithreyi Krishnaraj : A Brief Summary

 An Overview of the Status of Women in India By Neera Desai and Maithreyi Krishnaraj

Summary

INTRODUCTION:

The Article provides a historical context for understanding the position of women in contemporary Indian society. It emphasises the importance of considering various historical, political, cultural, and economic factors that have shaped the society over its 3,000-year history. The study aims to give a general overview rather than a detailed periodization. However, it acknowledges the difficulties of such an analysis due to the existence of significant regional, urban-rural, class, religious, ethnic, and caste variations in women's status.

The Article highlights the challenge of constructing a monolithic picture of women's position at different stages of development due to these variations. Additionally, the lack of authentic sources and the elitist nature of historical documents pose difficulties in understanding the role of women. Some women historians and Sanskrit scholars have attempted different interpretations of traditional texts, uncovering a dichotomy in how women were portrayed. Efforts to reconstruct history from a feminist perspective have just begun, and more collaborative research is needed.

The Article divides Indian history into three broad periods: the pre-colonial period (800 BC to 1800 AD), the pre-independence period (1800 to 1947), and the post-independence period. However, the periodization is arbitrary, focusing on providing an overview of women's status. The analysis primarily centres on Hindu upper-caste women, and the diverse experiences of women in matrilineal societies and Muslim or scheduled caste communities are not deeply explored in this initial study.

Before delving into the position of women in pre-colonial India, the Article emphasizes the need to understand the normative structure and class/caste base of Indian society, as they form the fundamental context for women's status.

 Normative Structure of Traditional Indian Society       

The normative structure of traditional Indian society, as expressed in Vedic texts, Dharmashastras, Arthashastra, and Manusmriti, was deeply influenced by Brahmanism and upheld patriarchal values. Women were expected to constantly worship their husbands and remain dependent on them due to their perceived passionate and disloyal nature. The ideal woman was one who did not challenge these norms and exhibited virtue and chastity as daughters, wives, and widows.

Patriarchy was prevalent in Indian society and expressed through cultural metaphors, rituals, and practices that reinforced the subordinate role of women. Symbolism depicting women as mere receivers of seeds and providers of warmth and nourishment perpetuated the notion of male ownership and control. Rituals and rites focused on the well-being of male family members, emphasizing women's role as devout wives and mothers.

The Indian society also exhibited a dual concept of females in Hindu philosophy, with women seen as both benevolent bestowers of prosperity and aggressive, malevolent and destructive beings. This duality extended to goddesses, with some portrayed as dangerous and others as benevolent. The ambiguity in this duality creates confusion but is considered culturally logical, representing women as both energy/power and nature.

The value structure in traditional Indian society contributed to the perception that women possess power, albeit not in visible terms. This myth, along with the symbolism and rituals, helped create a seemingly elevated but actually inferior position of women in Indian society. The complexities of this value structure and its impact on women's status require further exploration and analysis.

Caste System in India

The caste system in India played a significant role in shaping the position of women in society. The varna principle categorised society into four groups, with Brahmins holding the highest position and Shudras at the lowest, serving the other three varnas. The caste system's origin is a topic of controversy, with theories attributing it to the Aryan invasion or the adjustment of originally equalitarian clans to economic surplus.

Caste endogamy and concepts of purity and pollution were crucial features of the system, regulating marriage practices and mobility of women. The system denigrated women through concepts like anuloma and pratiloma marriages, where marrying a lower-caste woman was approved but marrying a higher-caste woman was considered unacceptable. The status of women was tied to caste inequality, with women in lower castes being accessible to men of higher status but severe punishments for men of lower castes approaching women of higher groups.

Caste also controlled women's labour, determining social and sexual divisions of labour. Women were assigned specific tasks in agriculture and other domains, and their physical mobility was restricted by caste norms. Women and Shudras were often linked together in terms of prescriptions and prohibitions, reinforcing their low position in society.

The caste system provided not only a legitimization of feudal relations of production but also an ideological justification for the subordination of women in Indian society.

Position of Women during Pre-colonial Period

During the pre-colonial period in India, the position of women underwent significant changes. In the early Vedic period, society was predominantly pastoral and nomadic, providing women with relatively better access to education, religious rights, and freedom of movement. However, with the growth of class society and the influence of the Manav Code, the position of women started to decline.

Women faced restrictions on education, and the sacred thread ceremony, which was essential for formal education, was prohibited for women and Shudras. The age of marriage for girls was lowered to 9 or 10 years, leading to pre-puberty marriages. Despite some exceptional cases of scholarly and independent women, mainstream life for upper-caste women was confined to domestic roles and serving their kin. Widowhood was especially tragic, with widows facing social stigma and often compelled to follow the practice of Sati, immolating themselves on their husband's funeral pyre.

The post-Vedic period saw the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism, which provided some alternatives to women's roles. Buddhism allowed women to become bhikkhunis (nuns) but still subjected them to discrimination within the Sangha. The Bhakti Movement in mediaeval times opened the gates of religion for women, producing female saints, but it did not fundamentally challenge gender subordination.

The decline in women's position during this period was attributed to various factors, including the growth of class society, the establishment of private property, and the increasing emphasis on patriarchal values and control of women's purity.

It is essential to consider regional, caste, religious, and class differences when studying women's positions in pre-colonial society. The formulation and influence of normative structures during this period persist to some extent in contemporary society.

Position of Women during Pre-independence Period       

During the pre-independence period in India, British rule had a profound impact on the country's economy, ideology, and social structure. The introduction of the English language as a medium of instruction affected the education system, and it provided access to liberal ideas like liberty, equality, and secularism. Two major movements, the Social Reform Movement in the 19th century and the Nationalist Movement in the 20th century, contributed to changing the position of women in society.

The Social Reform Movement, led by prominent figures like Raja Rammohan Roy and Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, focused on eradicating social evils like sati (widow burning), ill-treatment of widows, child marriage, polygamy, and denial of property rights and education to women. The movement sought to raise awareness and sensitize people to the injustices faced by women and advocated for education and progressive legislation to bring about social change.

The Nationalist Movement, especially during the Gandhian phase, further empowered women. Mahatma Gandhi criticized outdated social institutions and practices, including child marriage, widow remarriage prohibition, temple prostitution, and purdah (seclusion of women). Women actively participated in various movements, including Satyagrahas, picketing, and civil disobedience, and their involvement extended to both urban and rural areas.

The pre-independence period witnessed significant legal reforms to improve women's status. Acts like the Child Marriage Restraint Act (popularly known as the Sarda Act) prohibited marriages below the age of 14 for girls, and the Hindu women's right to property recognized women's right to property in joint family property. These legal reforms aimed to eradicate certain social evils and grant women more rights.

Although women of lower strata had been working for wages, middle-class women's entry into the workforce became more significant after World War II. Some women pursued professions like law, medicine, and teaching, but their numbers were limited during this period.

The pre-independence era marked the beginning of awareness regarding the suffering of women due to oppressive social customs. It created a favourable climate for legal reforms and opened doors to education and political participation for women. Women's organizations emerged to represent the needs of middle-class urban women, and several legal enactments aimed to rectify women's unequal position in society.

Contemporary Position of Indian Women

The contemporary position of Indian women is complex and varied. There have been significant improvements in certain areas, particularly for middle-class educated women in large urban areas. These women have greater access to education, work opportunities, and more freedom of movement, giving the impression that the status of Indian women has improved substantially.

However, the reality for many women in small towns, rural areas, and city slums is different. Women in these regions often face social and economic oppression, especially those belonging to lower castes and tribes. They are still confined to traditional roles and responsibilities, and they suffer from poverty, lack of education, and limited opportunities.

The Constitution of India guarantees formal equality for women, and there have been legal reforms to improve women's rights. Acts like the Hindu Law, Inheritance Act, Maternity Benefit Act, and Dowry Prohibition Act have been enacted to address gender disparities and social disabilities. More recent legal amendments have been introduced to address issues like rape and matrimonial disputes.

India's economic policies, based on mixed economy and industrialization, have had both positive and negative implications for women. While some women have benefited from increased employment opportunities, others have faced the brunt of poverty and exploitation, leading to the feminization of poverty.

The establishment of a Welfare State in India aimed to improve women's status through various welfare programs. The government initiated social welfare activities to promote the well-being of women, children, and underprivileged groups. Women's organizations proliferated during this period, giving women a platform to raise their voices and participate in social and political activities.

Despite these positive measures, patriarchal values and norms still persist, and women continue to face discrimination and violence. Adverse sex ratios, domestic violence, dowry deaths, and rape cases remain pressing issues.

The myth of Indian women enjoying a high status in society has been challenged, and there is a growing awareness of the discrimination and deprivation faced by women. The emergence of the women's movement has provided hope for positive change and efforts to raise the status of women in India.

The contemporary position of Indian women is a complex mix of progress and challenges. While there have been significant improvements in certain areas, there is still much work to be done to achieve true gender equality and empower women in all aspects of society. The women's movement and continued efforts at legal and social reforms play a crucial role in advancing women's rights and status in India.

SHORT NOTES OF ARTICLE

Introduction:

- The status of women in India has been a subject of considerable interest and scrutiny due to the country's diverse cultural, social, and economic landscape.

- Throughout history, the position of women in Indian society has evolved, influenced by factors like religion, traditions, economic development, and colonial rule.

Pre-colonial Period:

- The position of women during the pre-colonial period varied based on the societal structure and material culture.

- The Vedic period showed comparatively better conditions for women in terms of education, religious rights, and freedom of movement.

- The decline in women's position coincided with the growth of a class society, starting from the Manusmriti period (500 BC to 1800 AD).

- During this period, the birth of daughters became a source of anxiety, and women's access to education was gradually neglected.

- The decline of women's status was further reinforced by societal norms that restricted their movements and emphasized ritual purity.

Colonial Period:

- The advent of British colonial rule in India brought significant changes to women's status.

- The British influence impacted Indian society economically, politically, and ideologically.

- The British colonial rule indirectly affected the status of women by introducing economic and legal changes that had differing impacts on various sections of women.

- The social reform movement of the 19th century and the nationalist movement of the 20th century contributed to questioning women's unequal status and fighting for equal rights.

Pre-Independence Period:

- During the pre-independence period, the focus on social reforms aimed to eradicate discriminatory practices against women.

- Social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, and Mahatma Phule worked towards abolishing practices like sati, child marriage, and promoting widow remarriage.

- The formation of women's organizations and the National Social Conference in 1887 provided a platform for discussing women's issues and social reforms.

- The nationalist movement led by Mahatma Gandhi also brought women into the political fold, encouraging their participation in civil disobedience movements and other political activities.

Post-Independence Period:

- After India gained independence in 1947, the government actively pursued policies to address gender inequalities and improve women's status.

- Social reform measures, such as the Hindu Marriage Act (1955) and the Hindu Succession Act (1956), aimed at granting women equal rights in marriage and property inheritance.

- The government encouraged women's education, resulting in increased enrollment of girls in schools and colleges.

- Women's participation in politics and public life also increased, with women assuming leadership roles in various fields.

Contemporary Period:

- The contemporary position of Indian women is marked by a complex mix of progress and challenges.

- The Constitution of India guarantees formal equality for women through fundamental rights and directive principles.

- Legal reforms, such as Hindu Law and inheritance rights, have aimed to empower women.

- Economic policies based on mixed economy and industrialization have brought both opportunities and challenges for women.

- The establishment of a welfare state aimed to improve women's status through social welfare programs and the creation of women's organizations.

Challenges:

- Despite legal reforms and economic progress, patriarchal values and social norms persist, leading to discrimination and violence against women.

- Poverty, lack of education, and limited opportunities continue to affect women, particularly in rural and marginalised communities.

- The feminization of poverty is a growing concern, with poverty and unemployment having a disproportionate impact on women.

Emergence of Women's Movement:

- The last few decades have seen the emergence of the women's movement in India, where women are raising their voices against inequality, patriarchy, and social disparities.

- Women's organizations and forums have provided platforms for women to advocate for their rights and participate in social and political activities.

Conclusion:

- The status of women in India is a complex and evolving issue influenced by historical, cultural, and economic factors.

- While there have been significant improvements in certain areas, there are still challenges to overcome to achieve true gender equality and empower women in all aspects of society.

- The women's movement and ongoing efforts for legal and social reforms play a crucial role in advancing women's rights and status in India.